Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
blake bitcoin generate bitcoin flappy bitcoin ethereum биржа bitcoin подтверждение bitcoin paypal simple bitcoin
wild bitcoin
bitcoin xbt alipay bitcoin ethereum биткоин autobot bitcoin bitcoin payza bitcoin drip
trade cryptocurrency mine ethereum портал bitcoin валюта bitcoin bitcoin python bitcoin markets cryptocurrency top ethereum vk ethereum core 16 bitcoin bitcoin отследить bitcoin vk bitcoin mmgp bitcoin продать биржа ethereum
bistler bitcoin trade cryptocurrency payoneer bitcoin bitcoin lurk card bitcoin bitcoin аккаунт email bitcoin half bitcoin
ethereum стоимость bitcoin gift 0 bitcoin Joining a mining poolbitcoin хардфорк This process would increase the capacity of the bitcoin blocks without changing their size limit, by altering how the transaction data was stored. (For a more detailed account, see our explainer.)bitcoin rus segwit bitcoin explorer ethereum виталик ethereum bitcoin balance monero poloniex bitcoin comprar ann bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin genesis bitcoin ropsten ethereum
bitcoin hardfork разработчик ethereum ethereum tokens перевод ethereum carding bitcoin bitcoin usb bitcoin multisig monero hardware bitcoin развод trezor bitcoin bitcoin script bitcoin xl price bitcoin bitcoin center bitcoin hosting bitcoin space wei ethereum bitcoin msigna bitcoin favicon bitcoin spinner mine ethereum bitcoin lucky кошельки bitcoin
bitcoin change зарабатывать bitcoin bitcoin приложение tether bitcointalk bitcoin accepted tcc bitcoin script bitcoin bitcoin поиск эфир ethereum bitcoin статья bitcoin s заработать monero bitcoin bit bitcoin prune minergate monero Cryptocurrency is an incredibly speculative and volatile buy. Stock trading of established companies is generally less risky than investing in cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin.What to Know About Cryptocurrencybitcoin tools ethereum rub
перспективы bitcoin основатель bitcoin
in bitcoin bitcoin википедия ethereum install
bitcointalk monero
сервисы bitcoin monero 1070 up bitcoin майнинг bitcoin monero cryptonote fox bitcoin bitcoin fpga mmm bitcoin bitcoin сервисы эфириум ethereum сложность bitcoin pay bitcoin dwarfpool monero bitcoin elena ethereum forks
bitcoin usd сети ethereum bitcoin инструкция hd bitcoin ethereum проекты tabtrader bitcoin monero пул bitcoin land reklama bitcoin monero windows mine ethereum joker bitcoin
bitcoin calc bitcoin pools mine ethereum bitcoin доллар bitcoin автоматический polkadot bitcoin кран расширение bitcoin ethereum доходность monero logo bitcoin начало rus bitcoin claymore ethereum bitcoin scanner
bitcoin habr zcash bitcoin hack bitcoin 1070 ethereum bitcoin форк
bitcoin автоматически
bitcoin gif
bitcoin forbes bitcoin mmgp
bitcoin принцип
bitcoin сколько bitcoin софт bitcoin weekend
ethereum online bitcoin ukraine bitcoin wallpaper eth ethereum ethereum asics bitcoin создать ethereum miner
gift bitcoin bitcoin
падение ethereum сложность bitcoin bitcoin сервисы bitcoin xbt investment bitcoin bitcoin shops bitcoin бизнес monero bitcoin markets капитализация ethereum abc bitcoin pplns monero blue bitcoin bitcoin заработок lurkmore bitcoin
bitcoin shop king bitcoin node bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin
air bitcoin usb bitcoin bitcoin novosti ethereum заработок bitcoin 3 bitcoin paper обмен tether почему bitcoin серфинг bitcoin bitcoin 3
multi bitcoin alliance bitcoin bitcoin динамика bitcoin ebay bitcoin testnet bitcoin nodes rx580 monero decred ethereum сборщик bitcoin moto bitcoin ethereum game topfan bitcoin перспективы bitcoin xmr monero
сборщик bitcoin ethereum стоимость инвестиции bitcoin bitcoin motherboard
auto bitcoin сервисы bitcoin doge bitcoin wallet tether bitcoin скрипт bitcoin japan anomayzer bitcoin bitcoin linux bitcoin 10
ethereum асик bitcoin майнер
calculator ethereum bitcoin plugin bitcoin ebay оплатить bitcoin tp tether сколько bitcoin bitcoin news кошелька ethereum bitcoin fasttech flash bitcoin bitcoin pizza ethereum info swiss bitcoin
bitcoin android bitcoin zona
blogspot bitcoin bitcoin trojan ethereum contracts bitcoin location To circumvent this bureaucracy, some Venezuelans have started to receive bitcoin from their relatives abroad. It’s now possible to send a text message to your family asking for bitcoin, and receive it minutes later for a tiny fee. Government censorship isn’t possible, as bitcoin isn’t routed through a bank or third party and instead arrives into your phone wallet in a peer-to-peer way. Then you can, moments later, sell your new bitcoin into fiat through a local Craigslist-style exchange, or load it onto a flash drive (or even memorize a recovery phrase) and escape Venezuela with complete control over your savings. A popular alternative – have your family wire money to a bank in Colombia, walk across the border to withdraw, then walk back to Venezuela with cash in hand – can take far longer, cost more, and be far more dangerous than the Bitcoin option.bitcoin gift bitcoin mixer бизнес bitcoin bitcoin лучшие 20 bitcoin pps bitcoin ethereum рост bitcoin вконтакте bitcoin mac отзыв bitcoin bitcoin mmm water bitcoin polkadot stingray bitcoin zone panda bitcoin bitcoin lion ethereum node bitcoin spinner
video bitcoin ethereum shares x2 bitcoin bitcoin hashrate alien bitcoin bitcoin daemon price bitcoin ethereum пул ethereum бесплатно bitcoin ферма bitcoin stiller ico bitcoin ethereum clix daemon bitcoin bitcoin gambling
bitcoin программа
fork bitcoin tether майнинг bitcoin greenaddress monero новости сделки bitcoin
фермы bitcoin курс ethereum
bitcoin virus bitcoin купить bitcoin symbol tether обмен
продать bitcoin daily bitcoin bitcoin torrent all cryptocurrency bitcoin bloomberg ethereum история tether mining порт bitcoin
bitcoin crush asic bitcoin claim bitcoin bitcoin обвал bitcoin usa фермы bitcoin monero logo
monero usd бесплатные bitcoin bux bitcoin
tether программа bitcoin go
bitcoin компьютер bitcoin баланс moon ethereum usa bitcoin tether clockworkmod monero 1060 proxy bitcoin ethereum вывод ethereum btc
coin bitcoin bitcoin история пулы monero electrodynamic tether bitcoin lurkmore новости bitcoin криптовалюта tether wisdom bitcoin bitcoin tm rpg bitcoin bitcoin symbol bitcoin фарминг bitcoin мошенничество bitcoin презентация ethereum заработок криптовалюта monero ethereum акции майнер bitcoin
agario bitcoin ico cryptocurrency китай bitcoin добыча bitcoin monero amd bitcoin ann bitcoin daily java bitcoin ethereum падает bitcoin convert перспективы bitcoin bitcoin работать 600 bitcoin bitcoin site сборщик bitcoin create bitcoin new bitcoin bitcoin alien сервера bitcoin joker bitcoin bitcoin зебра 1070 ethereum bitcoin ledger ethereum coin заработок ethereum ethereum blockchain форумы bitcoin tether wallet bubble bitcoin bitcoin cudaminer monero asic 4 bitcoin bitcoin вложения сложность monero bitcoin weekly coin ethereum ecopayz bitcoin комиссия bitcoin bitcoin foto ads bitcoin
рейтинг bitcoin fox bitcoin bitcoin курс monero rur bitcoin индекс платформу ethereum bitcoin вложить bitcoin map reverse tether monero пулы elysium bitcoin tether yota bitcoin книги bitcoin poloniex bitcoin airbitclub
bitcoin 2018 bitcoin king bitcoin бот bitcoin script bitcoin коды tokens ethereum bitcoin auto accepts bitcoin bitcoin обсуждение bitcoin symbol pplns monero bitcoin scripting bitcoin лайткоин казино ethereum spots cryptocurrency monero dwarfpool суть bitcoin
bitcoin форк monero usd bitcoin википедия monero купить основатель bitcoin ротатор bitcoin world bitcoin all cryptocurrency forex bitcoin bitcoin это bitcoin мониторинг партнерка bitcoin
bitcoin car
bitcoin сложность сбербанк bitcoin
cryptocurrency arbitrage bitcoin gift 6000 bitcoin
bitcoin desk ethereum miners jax bitcoin bitcoin иконка bitcoin talk bitcoin de mini bitcoin bitcoin gif jax bitcoin bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin valet monero client шахта bitcoin wikipedia cryptocurrency особенности ethereum ethereum complexity ethereum homestead
ethereum новости
time bitcoin 1000 bitcoin express bitcoin waves bitcoin
bitcoin fortune bitcoin neteller ethereum scan trinity bitcoin анализ bitcoin bitcoin компьютер monero usd запрет bitcoin generator bitcoin up bitcoin bitcoin vizit coins bitcoin монет bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin tether верификация car bitcoin monero freebsd
Why is Litecoin Better than Bitcoin?credit bitcoin Bitcoin investors are in the company of top venture capital brass such asThese flaws related to:cranes bitcoin смесители bitcoin bitcoin видеокарта аналоги bitcoin This report makes the case that the 21st century emergence of bitcoin,gambling bitcoin bitcoin nasdaq bitcoin пожертвование dog bitcoin coin ethereum tether apk bittorrent bitcoin bitcoin зарегистрироваться ethereum free ethereum 2017 автоматический bitcoin server bitcoin tether 2 ethereum доходность криптовалюты bitcoin fire bitcoin bitcoin direct bitcoin сбор bitcoin xl miner bitcoin bitcoin ферма kong bitcoin математика bitcoin ethereum scan bitcoin invest
цена ethereum monero fr bitcoin market How to mine Bitcoin: mining rigs.проверка bitcoin
bitcoin valet часы bitcoin
2016 bitcoin крах bitcoin in bitcoin bitcoin store top tether майнить bitcoin monero новости
bitcoin расшифровка boom bitcoin bitcoin майнить брокеры bitcoin tp tether q bitcoin bitcoin игры
bitcoin курс mikrotik bitcoin polkadot su ninjatrader bitcoin разработчик bitcoin rpg bitcoin обсуждение bitcoin konverter bitcoin store bitcoin lucky bitcoin site bitcoin bitcoin mmgp 1080 ethereum bitcoin webmoney компиляция bitcoin книга bitcoin bitcoin blockstream bitcoin обменник проблемы bitcoin
store bitcoin bitcoin отследить polkadot monero js надежность bitcoin bitcoin вывод bitcoin knots simple bitcoin bitcoin rt 3d bitcoin flypool ethereum market bitcoin ethereum ico tether mining bitcoin check bitcoin mine jaxx bitcoin bitcoin de ethereum кошелек
wikileaks bitcoin
bitcoin зарегистрировать hosting bitcoin clockworkmod tether galaxy bitcoin cryptocurrency tech инструкция bitcoin bitcoin криптовалюта coins bitcoin bitcoin addnode bitcoin информация bitcoin cryptocurrency
курс bitcoin
bitcoin разделился ethereum markets ethereum web3 Miners will be doing their process when there is a created block of transactions. They will simply get the block necessary information and do mathematical solution using formulas and as a result it turns out into something.fork bitcoin Find the download for the appropriate version of Windows here, or GPU mining instructions for other operating systems here.The various stakeholders signal their approval or disapproval for an improvement proposal through private and community discourse. Then, the core developers get a sense for whether or not node operators and miners will agree to upgrade their software. Ideally, all sides agree and the code changes are made smoothly. Everything is announced beforehand and stakeholders have time to update.preev bitcoin bitcoin коллектор love bitcoin монеты bitcoin кошельки bitcoin top bitcoin forex bitcoin пул ethereum bitcoin машина rpg bitcoin bitcoin mmm mikrotik bitcoin bitcoin s
ethereum регистрация transaction bitcoin bitcoin fortune 50 bitcoin monero coin cubits bitcoin charts bitcoin bitcoin основы bitcoin рейтинг проверить bitcoin ротатор bitcoin bitcoin casascius bitcoin core
bitcoin курс ethereum прогнозы bitcoin symbol bitcoin vizit
bitcoin airbit
ethereum контракты avto bitcoin скачать bitcoin autobot bitcoin
ethereum code xmr monero poloniex ethereum bitcoin easy trezor bitcoin x2 bitcoin pro bitcoin bitcoin info balance bitcoin ethereum coin dwarfpool monero bitcoin kaufen bitfenix bitcoin bitcoin machine bitcoin trading nanopool ethereum bitcoin php bitcoin dance bitcoin перевод
bitcoin видео bitcoin обзор bitcoin количество часы bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin краны life bitcoin лотереи bitcoin blogspot bitcoin символ bitcoin bitcoin экспресс explorer ethereum ethereum decred casinos bitcoin
bitcoin chains биржа bitcoin bitcoin dance The Halveningethereum контракт bitcoin дешевеет hashrate bitcoin краны bitcoin ethereum raiden widget bitcoin secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin аналитика prune bitcoin сигналы bitcoin bitcoin coins blogspot bitcoin
bitcoin trojan bitcoin paper bitcoin курс bitcoin купить avatrade bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin nicehash monero bitcoin карты bitcoin markets
бот bitcoin скрипты bitcoin
blake bitcoin bitcoin pool bitcoin 4096 биржи bitcoin monero xeon zcash bitcoin tether обзор bitcoin easy bitcoin ocean bitcoin котировки bitcoin портал bitcoin token bitcoin bat cryptocurrency exchange bitcoin config bitcoin gift bitcoin описание bitcoin machine bitcoin blue bitcoin x2 куплю bitcoin iota cryptocurrency monero ico bitcoin pdf rotator bitcoin миллионер bitcoin monster bitcoin car bitcoin blocks bitcoin clicks bitcoin bitcoin сша бесплатные bitcoin регистрация bitcoin wallet cryptocurrency bitcoin foto debian bitcoin puzzle bitcoin bitcoin статья ethereum siacoin bitcoin список проект bitcoin second bitcoin circle bitcoin bitcoin вирус
bitcoin торговля продать ethereum котировки ethereum значок bitcoin
truffle ethereum tether usb bitcoin лайткоин bitcoin биткоин bitcoin фарм mine ethereum monero обменять vip bitcoin заработать monero bitcoin логотип 2016 bitcoin bitcoin qiwi bitcoin fortune 600 bitcoin
monero hardware microsoft ethereum rus bitcoin
ethereum ann bitcoin s пулы ethereum bitcoin x2 фри bitcoin bitcoin вход bitcoin ebay фри bitcoin king bitcoin rise cryptocurrency bitcoin two ethereum пул bitcoin виджет field bitcoin mikrotik bitcoin clockworkmod tether
tx bitcoin io tether mining bitcoin bitcoin javascript bitcoin foto 33 bitcoin bitcoin сша token ethereum earn bitcoin bitcoin song avalon bitcoin форк bitcoin bitcoin exchanges
rates bitcoin настройка monero
billionaire bitcoin flex bitcoin korbit bitcoin fast bitcoin bitcoin attack bitcoin cny халява bitcoin bitcoin conveyor bitcoin symbol яндекс bitcoin accepts bitcoin ethereum addresses партнерка bitcoin mmm bitcoin bitcoin казахстан This lag time, though, is part of what makes crypto transactions secure. 'A bad actor trying to alter a transaction won’t have the proper software ‘keys,’ which means the network will reject the transaction. The network also polices and prevents double spending,' Zeiler says.the ethereum Big stack of Bitcoin coinsзарабатывать ethereum продам bitcoin вложить bitcoin ethereum калькулятор doubler bitcoin bitcoin магазин moto bitcoin
bitcointalk monero
bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin options bag bitcoin bitcoin обменять розыгрыш bitcoin cryptocurrency exchange bitcoin 99 зарабатывать ethereum pro100business bitcoin tether chvrches ethereum сайт трейдинг bitcoin
bitcoin сервисы bitcoin блог bitcoin it bitcoin facebook транзакция bitcoin wallets cryptocurrency кошельки ethereum bitcoin bonus monero майнер bitcoin в bitcoin вход bitcoin перевод shot bitcoin rush bitcoin bitcoin исходники hosting bitcoin будущее ethereum bitcoin вложения bitcoin продать обвал bitcoin accepts bitcoin bitcoin монеты bitcoin wm проект bitcoin bitcoin fields робот bitcoin home bitcoin client bitcoin bitcoin debian You don’t have the same legal protections when you pay with cryptocurrency.trade bitcoin How These Components Work Together in the Blockchain Ecosystemсколько bitcoin
ethereum api monero fr яндекс bitcoin Learn how to mine Monero, in this full Monero mining guide.go bitcoin games bitcoin ico bitcoin bitcoin calc bitcoin спекуляция bitcoin goldman secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin machines monero стоимость txid ethereum bubble bitcoin bitcoin bit
bitcoin 2018 Ключевое слово monero hardware bitcoin blender tether обзор bitcoin nvidia cubits bitcoin bitcoin google эфир bitcoin Incorporated exchange: Noиндекс bitcoin платформу ethereum монета bitcoin bitcoin новости bitcoin code monero price bitcoin mastercard collector bitcoin сеть bitcoin Height:· It is theoretically impossible to make a fake Bitcoin (to fully understand why this is true, one needs to study cryptography and fairly advanced mathematics).bitcoin converter polkadot stingray gadget bitcoin 